buddhism in myanmar
theravada buddhism = moral universe = burmese civic culture = monkhood
As the political sphere has become more polarized, some have singled out religion as the explicative backbone for the ways in which people conceptualize their political outlooks. Matthew J. Walton’s Buddhism, Politics, and Political Thought in Myanmar aims to provide a solid foundational understanding of how Buddhism shaped politics in Myanmar. The book aims to offer readers a peek into the “moral universe” of Theravada Buddhism, which is inextricably linked to Burmese civic culture and political life. Through laying out the ways in which Burmans think about politics, Walton demonstrates how Buddhist thinking is the source of the Burmese political framework. Ultimately, Walton has written a piece that serves to introduce those outside of the tradition, to ideas that are part and parcel of life in Burma.
Walton lays out two key core ideas and a specific methodology that inform the entire project. First is that of the moral universe. That is to say, he suggests that Burmans view politics as an inherently moral practice. Their political dynamics play out within this moral framework of correct and incorrect action, each of which have particular consequences. Second is that of the interpretive plasticity of Buddhist teachings, which is to say that the ways in which Buddhist teachings shift and can be adapted to various contexts lends itself to multiple uses. Most often, this means that legitimacy rests in a state of flux, which can explain the variance in Burmese political structures. Lastly, on a methodological note, Walton considers the work to be interpretive of these ideas, rather than normative, citing the various ways in which Buddhism has been and can be interpreted. Furthermore, the tradition in which he is writing about is specific to a majority– the ethnically Burmese, and thus, the politics being discussed apply only to Burmese Buddhist thought.
The book is split into two thematic areas. The introduction, chapter 1, chapter 2, and chapter 3 focus on providing a sufficient discussion of background information on Burmese historical contexts, human nature, and Theravada Buddhism. The rest of the book is focused specifically on Burmese political morality and other areas of political relevance. In the introduction, Walton opens with an account of the Saffron Revolution, discussing the way in which Western media oversimplified the political dynamic of Myanmar in latching onto the symbolic imagery of the monk. The rest of the chapter introduces the “moral universe” that is constitutive of Burmese civic life. Walton argues that previous examinations of the role of Buddhism relay a totalizing, static view– when this is not the case of Burmese Buddhism. This ultimately changed in the postcolonial rationalized world, where modern Buddhism was forced to confront the rapidly changing forefront of politics. Despite this, there is not a clear breakthrough distinction between these two paradigms, rather, variations and blending of ideas from both groups likely occurred during the transition.
Walton relays a brief history of Myanmar, describing the relevant highlights and important characters in Burma’s political canon for those unfamiliar with the topic. Walton walks us through the overthrowing of King Thibaw in 1885, leading to an absence of a thathanabaing (head of the monkhood) presence under colonial rule until 1904. The failure of the British colonizers to appoint thathanabaings raised worries about moral decay. In the 1920s, like the rest of the global world, Burmans became concerned with the national question, engaging monks in political activity. These monks became a political link between the rural and urban populations who were concerned with the decay of morality that took place under British rule. This led to the eventual creation of the Dobayama Asioyone in 1933, a nationalist magazine composed of younger leftist intellectuals. In the mid 30s, Marxist ideas started to circulate amongst these circles, spread by a group called the Nagani Book Club. By the end of the decade, there were two key developments, namely that members of the Dobayama Asioyone began to engage in riots directed against Muslims, and the rise of the urban thakin movement. The movement would lead to the creation of the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League, lead by Thakin Kodaw Hmaing.
In 1948, Burma declared its independence. The next decade was filled with rebellions and the unsettling non-Burmans, both of which were heavily repressed by the Burmese armed forces. Marxism and Buddhism during this period were found to be incompatible in some areas, raising conflict surrounding the topic. By 1958, the AFPFL split along ideological lines, and shortly after in 1962, a military coup installed the Burma Socialist Programme Party in power. Uprisings throughout the 70s and 80s, followed by economic stagnation in the 90s, culminated in the Saffron Revolution of 2007. In more recent times, mounting ethnic tensions in the region have resulted in the ongoing Rohingya genocide. Furthermore, conflict between the military junta and the government led to a coup in 2021, with the deposition of the former head of the Burmese government, Aung San Suu Kyi.
Walton’s core argument is that the moral universe of Theravada Buddhism is interconnected with political thought in Burma. This is manifested in the heightened role of morality in Burmese civic life. Walton explains, “Proper Buddhist moral conduct must encompass right action, speech, and thought” (Walton, 2018, p.39). In this paradigm, moral purity and political activity are inherently linked. Within the tradition of Theravada Buddhism, the area in which this is particularly apparent is in the Eight-Fold Noble Path. This path emphasizes 8 key actions that will ultimately lead one to live a morally pure life– right understanding, right thought, right speech, rich action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. In cultivating these 8 key things, one can escape the dukkha (suffering) of life and attain nirvana. Furthermore, according to the Pali suttas (the key teachings of the Buddha), “Life as a human is considered one of the highest states of existence because of the human capacity for reason and the ability to discern good from evil” (Walton, 2018, p.73).
This is the fundamental tension of Buddhism that underlies Burmese politics– the tension between the fact that humans may be driven by their desires and fail to follow the path, but that they are also able to liberate themselves and attain enlightenment. The failure of humans to control their desires necessitates some form of governance. And yet, those that hold power within governance are also fallible to the Four Agatis– desire, anger, fear, and ignorance. Thus, Buddhism in the political sphere necessitates plasticity that works around these irreconcilable nuances of human nature.
Despite the broad scope and overall success of the book, the one caveat is its narrow focus on the ethnically Burman population. This overlooks a critical aspect of the understanding of Buddhism in a real world context, which extends beyond the ethnically Burman population to those of minorities also living within Burma. In removing the voices of these populations, Walton cannot faithfully represent the tradition in whole. When picking and choosing subjects, genuine authenticity of a tradition is crowded out by a singular dominant narrative. This can be problematic, as those unfamiliar with the topic may come away from the project with a narrowed conceptualization of the reality of Buddhism in Burma.
However, this book will certainly prove useful to those interested in the role of religion in political conceptions. Though it is a wonderful introduction to the Burman context, its methodology should find no problem in being adapted to other projects. Any scholar who seeks to understand how religious frameworks can be adapted and used in non-religious contexts will find Walton’s insights about the ways in which morality is transformed a useful concept. The style of analysis used, with its emphasis on interpretive rather than normative theorizing, can definitely serve as a future foundation for future work on the way in which religion can spread to political spheres in various traditions. In describing the ways in which Buddhism has shaped modern mindsets and attitudes, Walton has laid out a clear path for other scholars to use when considering their own work on religion in political life.
References
Walton, M. J. (2018). Buddhism, politics and political thought in Myanmar. Cambridge University Press.